1. Umthelela wenqubo yokwelashwa kokushisa ekuthuthukiseni amandla okukhathala ama-bolts

Isikhathi eside, izimoto fasteners ubuswe yizici eziyisisekelo zezinhlobonhlobo zezinhlobonhlobo, izinhlobo, kanye nokucaciswa. Ukukhethwa nokusetshenziswa kwayo kuhilela ukuhlaziywa kwesakhiwo, ukuklama kokuxhumana, ukwehluleka nokuhlaziya ukukhathala, izidingo zokugqwala nezindlela zokuhlanganisa, nokuhlobene Lezi zici zinquma ikhwalithi yokugcina nokuthembeka kwemikhiqizo yezimoto ngokwezinga elikhulu.

Impilo yokukhathala yamabhawodi anamandla ezimoto ibilokhu iyinkinga ebalulekile. Idatha ibonisa ukuthi ukwehluleka okuningi kwamabhawodi kubangelwa ukwehluleka kokukhathala, futhi cishe akukho phawu lokuhluleka kokukhathala kwebhawodi. Ngakho-ke, izingozi ezinkulu zingase zenzeke lapho ukwehluleka kokukhathala kwenzeka. Ukwelashwa kokushisa kungathuthukisa izakhiwo zezinto zokubopha futhi kwandise amandla abo okukhathala. Uma kubhekwa izidingo zokusetshenziswa ezikhulayo zama-bolts anamandla amakhulu, kubaluleke kakhulu ukuthuthukisa amandla okukhathala kwezinto ze-bolt ngokusebenzisa ukwelashwa kokushisa.

1. Ukuqala kokukhathala kuqhekeka ezintweni

Indawo lapho kuqala ukukhathala kuqala khona ibizwa ngokuthi umthombo wokukhathala. Umthombo wokukhathala uzwela kakhulu ku-microstructure yebhawodi, futhi ungaqala imifantu yokukhathala ngesilinganiso esincane kakhulu, ngokuvamile phakathi kwamasayizi okusanhlamvu angu-3 kuya kwangu-5. Izinga eliphezulu lebhawodi liyinkinga enkulu. Umthombo wokukhathala, iningi lokukhathala liqala ukusuka endaweni engaphansi kwebhawodi noma ngaphansi. Inani elikhulu lokugudluzwa, ezinye izakhi ze-alloying noma ukungcola kukristalu wento yebhawudi, kanye nomehluko wamandla omngcele wokusanhlamvu konke kungaholela ekuqalisweni kokukhathala kokuqhekeka. Ucwaningo luye lwabonisa ukuthi imifantu yokukhathala ivame ukwenzeka ezindaweni ezilandelayo: imingcele yokusanhlamvu, ukufakwa kwendawo noma izinhlayiya zesigaba sesibili, kanye nemigodi. Lezi zindawo zonke zihlobene ne-microstructure eyinkimbinkimbi futhi eguqukayo yezinto ezibonakalayo. Uma i-microstructure ingathuthukiswa ngemva kokwelashwa kokushisa, amandla okukhathala wento ye-bolt angathuthukiswa ngezinga elithile.

2. Umphumela we-decarburization emandleni okukhathala

I-Decarburization ye-bolt surface izonciphisa ubulukhuni bobuso kanye nokumelana nokugqoka kwe-bolt ngemva kokucisha, futhi kunciphise kakhulu amandla okukhathala kwebhawodi. Kukhona ukuhlolwa kwe-decarburization yokusebenza kwebhawodi ezingeni le-GB/T3098.1, futhi ukujula okuphezulu kokususwa kwe-carburization kucacisiwe. Lapho kuhlaziywa izizathu zokungaphumeleli kwamabhawodi ehabhu le-35CrMo, kwatholakala ukuthi kukhona ungqimba olwehlisiwe lapho kuhlangana khona intambo nenduku. I-Fe3C ingasabela nge-O2, H2O, kanye ne-H2 emazingeni okushisa aphezulu ukuze kuncishiswe i-Fe3C kumpahla yebhawodi, ngaleyo ndlela ikhulise isigaba se-ferrite sempahla yebhawodi, inciphise amandla ento yebhawodi, futhi ibangele kalula imifantu emincane. Enkambweni yokwelapha ukushisa, izinga lokushisa lokushisa kufanele lilawulwe kahle, futhi ngesikhathi esifanayo, ukushisa okulawulwayo kokuvikela umoya kufanele kusetshenziselwe ukuxazulula le nkinga.

3. Umphumela wokwelapha ukushisa emandleni okukhathala

Ukugxila kwengcindezi ebusweni bebhawodi kuzonciphisa amandla ayo angaphezulu. Lapho ingaphansi kwemithwalo eshintshashintshayo eshintshashintshayo, inqubo ye-micro-deformation kanye nokululama izoqhubeka yenzeka engxenyeni yokuhlushwa yokucindezeleka yenotshi, futhi ukucindezeleka ekutholayo kukhulu kakhulu kunengxenye ngaphandle kokugxila kokucindezeleka, ngakho-ke kulula Ukuholela isizukulwane sokukhathala imifantu.

Izinto zokubopha ziphathwa ngokushisa futhi ziqinisiwe ukuze kuthuthukiswe i-microstructure, futhi zinezakhiwo ezinhle kakhulu zokuhlanganisa, ezingathuthukisa amandla okukhathala wento yebhawodi, zilawule ngokunengqondo usayizi wokusanhlamvu ukuze kuqinisekiswe amandla omthelela wezinga lokushisa eliphansi, futhi futhi zithole ukuqina komthelela ophezulu. Ukwelashwa kokushisa okunengqondo ukucwenga okusanhlamvu kanye nokunciphisa ibanga phakathi kwemingcele yokusanhlamvu kungavimbela imifantu yokukhathala. Uma kukhona inani elithile lentshebe noma izinhlayiya zesibili kumpahla, lezi zigaba ezengeziwe zingavimbela ukushelela komhlali ngezinga elithile. Ukushelela kwebhande kuvimbela ukuqaliswa nokunwetshwa kwama-microcracks.

2. Ukucisha i-medium kanye nendawo yokucubungula yokwelapha ukushisa

Izixhumi eziqinile zezimoto zinochungechunge lwezici zobuchwepheshe: izinga eliphezulu lokunemba; izimo zesevisi ezinzima, izomelana nethonya lokubanda okukhulu kanye nomehluko wokushisa okwedlulele unyaka wonke kanye nomsingathi, futhi imelane nokuguguleka kwamazinga okushisa aphezulu naphansi; umthwalo omile, umthwalo oshintshashintshayo, ukulayishwa ngokweqile, Umthwalo osindayo kanye nokugqwala kwemithombo yezemvelo, ngaphezu komphumela we-axial pre-tightening tensile load, izophinde ibe ngaphansi kwemithwalo eshintshashintshayo eqinile, imithwalo eshintshashintshayo yokushear ephambanayo noma imithwalo egotshwayo ehlanganisiwe ngesikhathi somsebenzi. Kwesinye isikhathi iphinde ibe ngaphansi kwemithwalo enomthelela; imithwalo eyengeziwe eshintshanayo ephambanayo ingabangela ukuba amabhawodi axege, imithwalo eshintshanayo ye-axial ingabangela ukuphuka kokukhathala kwamabhawodi, futhi imithwalo eqinile ye-axial ingabangela ukulibaziseka kokuphuka kwamabhawodi, kanye nezimo zokushisa eziphezulu. Ukuhamba kwama-bolts, njll.

Inani elikhulu lamabhawodi ahlulekile libonise ukuthi aphukile ngesikhathi soguquko phakathi kwekhanda lebhawodi ne umphini phakathi nenkonzo; akhishwa ngasekuhlanganeni kwentambo yebhawodi umphini futhi umphini; futhi kwakukhona amabhande alengelayo eceleni kwentambo. Ukuhlaziywa kwe-Metallographic: Kukhona i-ferrite engaphezulu engancibilikisiwe ebusweni naphakathi kwebhawodi, futhi i-austenitization enganele ngesikhathi sokucisha, amandla e-matrix anganele kanye nokugxila kokucindezeleka esinye sezizathu ezibalulekile zokwehluleka. Ngenxa yalesi sizathu, kuyisixhumanisi esibaluleke kakhulu sokuqinisekisa ukuqina kwe-bolt cross-section kanye nokufana kwesakhiwo.

Umsebenzi wamafutha okucisha ukususa ngokushesha ukushisa kwensimbi ebomvu eshisayo futhi unciphise izinga lokushisa lokuguqulwa kwe-martensite ukuze uthole isakhiwo se-martensite esinzima kakhulu kanye nokujula kwesendlalelo esiqinile. Ngesikhathi esifanayo, kufanele futhi icabangele ukuncishiswa bolt deformation kanye nokuvimbela Cracked. Ngakho-ke, isici esiyisisekelo samafutha okucisha "isici sokupholisa", esibonakala ngezinga lokupholisa ngokushesha esiteji sokushisa okuphezulu, kanye nezinga lokupholisa elihamba kancane esiteji sokushisa esiphansi. Lesi sici sifaneleka kakhulu ezidingweni zokucisha zensimbi yesakhiwo se-alloy ≥ 10.9 amabhawodi aphezulu.

Amafutha acisha ngokushesha akhiqiza ukubola okushisayo, i-oxidation kanye nokusabela kwe-polymerization ngesikhathi sokusetshenziswa, okuholela ekushintsheni kwezici zokupholisa. Umswakama womkhondo emafutheni uzophazamisa kakhulu ukusebenza kokupholisa kwamafutha, okuholela ekunciphiseni kokukhanya kanye nobulukhuni obungalingani bezinsimbi ngemva kokucisha. Khiqiza izindawo ezithambile noma ukuthambekela kokuqhekeka. Ucwaningo luye lwabonisa ukuthi izinkinga zokuguquguquka okubangelwa ukucisha uwoyela ngokwengxenye kubangelwa amanzi kuwoyela. Ngaphezu kwalokho, okuqukethwe kwamanzi emafutheni kubuye kusheshise i-emulsification kanye nokuwohloka kwamafutha futhi kukhuthaze ukwehluleka kwezithasiselo emafutheni. Lapho okuqukethwe kwamanzi emafutheni kungaphezu noma kulingana no-0.1%, lapho amafutha eshiswa, amanzi aqoqwe phansi ethangini lamafutha angase akhule ngokuzumayo ngomthamo, okungabangela uwoyela ukuba agcwale ithangi lokucisha futhi kubangele. umlilo.

Ngowoyela wokucisha osheshayo osetshenziswa esithandweni somlilo sebhande le-mesh eliqhubekayo, ngokususelwa kudatha yezimpawu zokucisha eqoqwe ekuhlolweni kwesikhashana kwezinyanga ezi-3, kungenzeka ukusungula ukuqina nezici zokucisha zamafutha, kunqume impilo yesevisi efanele yokucisha. uwoyela, futhi ubikezele ukusebenza kwamafutha okucisha. Shintsha izinkinga ezihlobene, ngaleyo ndlela kuncishiswe ukusebenza kabusha noma ukulahleka kwemfucuza okubangelwa izinguquko zokucisha izakhiwo zikawoyela, okwenza kube indlela evamile yokulawula ukukhiqizwa. Ukujula kokuqina kuthinta ngqo ikhwalithi ye-bolt ngemva kokwelashwa kokushisa. Uma ukuqina kwezinto ezibonakalayo kungalungile, izinga lokupholisa lendawo yokupholisa lihamba kancane, futhi usayizi webhawodi mkhulu, umgogodla webhawodi awukwazi ukucinywa wonke ube yi-martensite ngesikhathi sokucisha. Inhlangano inciphisa izinga lamandla lendawo yenhliziyo, ikakhulukazi amandla okukhiqiza. Lokhu ngokusobala kubi kakhulu kumabhawodi athwala ingcindezi eqinile esabalaliswe ngokulinganayo kuso sonke isigaba esiphambene. Ukuqina okunganele kunciphisa amandla. Ukuhlolwa kwe-Metallographic kutholwe ukuthi kunezakhiwo ze-proeutectoid ferrite kanye ne-reticulated ferrite kumongo, okubonisa ukuthi ukuqina kwebhawodi kudinga ukuqiniswa. Njengoba sonke sazi, kunezindlela ezimbili zokwandisa ukuqina kokwandisa izinga lokushisa lokucisha; ukwandisa ukuqina komshini wokucisha, okungakhulisa ngempumelelo ukujula kokuqina kwebhawodi.

I-Houghto-Quench ithuthukise ngokukhethekile uwoyela wokucisha osheshayo ngokusekelwe kuwoyela wokuqala wokucisha isivinini esiphakathi, i-Houghto-Quench G. Houghto-Quench K2000 iye yathuthukisa ikhono layo lokuqina, futhi ifaneleka ikakhulukazi ukusetshenziswa ekucimeni nasekupholiseni izixhumi. Ukujula okwanelisayo kokuqina.

Isiteji sefilimu ye-vapor samafutha okucima ngokushesha sifushane, okungukuthi, izinga lokushisa eliphezulu lamafutha liphola ngokushesha. Lesi sici sisiza ekutholeni isendlalelo esiqinile esijulile se-10B33 kanye ne-45 steel ≤ M20 bolts namantongomane e-M42, kuyilapho i-SWRCH35K kanye ne-10B28 steels, iyancishiswa Kuphela uma ubukhulu bungaphansi noma bulingana nama-bolts M12 kanye namantongomane angu-M30 angakwazi ukuqina. of the core kanye nobulukhuni ebusweni kunomehluko omncane. Kusukela ekuhlaziyweni kokusabalalisa kwezinga lokupholisa, ngaphezu kokupholisa okusheshayo okudingekayo ezigabeni zokushisa eziphakathi nendawo neziphezulu, izinga lokushisa eliphansi lokupholisa lamafutha linomthelela omkhulu ekujuleni kongqimba oluqinile. Izinga lokupholisa elisezingeni eliphansi liphezulu, kulapho ungqimba oluqinile lujula. Lokhu kunenzuzo kakhulu ukuthi izinsimbi eziqinisa amandla aphezulu zithwale umthwalo ngokufanayo kuwo wonke isigaba, futhi kuyadingeka ukuthola cishe u-90% wesakhiwo se-martensite ngaphambi kokushisa esimweni sokucisha. Izinkomba zokuhlola zifaka phakathi izinkomba ezingaba ngu-20 ezifana ne-flash point, i-viscosity, inani le-asidi, ukumelana ne-oxidation, insalela yekhabhoni, umlotha, udaka, izinga lokupholisa elicishayo, nokukhanya okucishayo.

Kumabhawudo amasayizi amakhulu, i-ejenti yokucisha i-PAG iyisixazululo esikhulu, esihlangabezana nezidingo zokucisha zemikhiqizo eminingi. I-ejenti yokucisha i-PAG isesigabeni sokubilisa endaweni yokuguqulwa kwe-martensite, futhi izinga lokupholisa liphezulu futhi kunengozi enkulu. Ingalungiswa ngokugxila. Izinga lokupholisa kunkomba yokhiye licishe libe ngu-300℃. Ukuncipha kwezinga lokupholisa kuleli phuzu lokushisa, kuqina amandla okuvimbela imifantu ecishayo kanye namamaki ensimbi afaneleka kakhulu. Ukuzinza kwezinga lokupholisa kwe-convection ngesikhathi sokusetshenziswa kuyisici esibaluleke kakhulu sokuqinisekisa ikhwalithi yokucisha.

Kumasampuli amabhawodi ahlulekayo angaphambi kwesikhathi, kungabonakala ukuthi kukhona ama-crack defects emiculweni yamabhawudi aphukile eduze nokuphuka. Isizathu esiyinhloko ukuthi amabhawodi asongwe ngendlela engafanele. Kubangelwa ukugoqa; imifantu emincane yokujula okuhlukene kungabuye kubonakale phansi kwentambo, futhi isimila esakhiwe ngomshini sakha indawo yokugxilisa ingqondo. I-GB/T5770.3-2000 ejwayelekile "Izimfuneko Ezikhethekile Zamabhawodi, Izikulufu kanye Nezikhonkwane Ezinokukhubazeka Okungaphezulu Kuma-Fasteners" ibeka ukuthi ukugoqa okungengaphezu kwekota yobude bephrofayela yentambo ngaphezu kobubanzi bephimbo lamabhawodi ngaphansi kwengcindezi kukhona. kuvunyelwe Ukugoqa nokwakhiwa kwentambo phansi akuvunyelwe amaphutha, futhi ukugoqa kungesinye sezizathu eziyinhloko zokuphuka kwebhawodi. Ukusetshenziswa kwe-lubricant ye-Houghton ye-pressure eyedlulele yokucubungula intambo ye-bolt kungavimbela ngempumelelo unqenqema olwakhelwe futhi kunciphise ukugxila kwengcindezi, ngaleyo ndlela kusize ukuthuthukisa impilo yokukhathala yebhawodi.

3. Ukuvikelwa kwendawo kanye nokuthuthukiswa kobuchwepheshe bezinsimbi zezimoto

Izixhumi ezimotweni, ikakhulukazi amabhawodi okubopha, izinsimbi zamapayipi, izinsimbi ezinwebekayo, njll., zisendaweni enzima kakhulu ngesikhathi zisetshenziswa, futhi zivame ukugqwala kakhulu, futhi kube nzima ngisho ukuziqaqa ngenxa yokugqwala. Ngakho-ke, izinto zokubopha kufanele zibe nezakhiwo ezinhle zokulwa nokugqwala. Izindlela ezivame ukusetshenziswa njengamanje i-electro-galvanizing, i-zinc-nickel alloy, i-phosphating, i-blackening kanye nokwelashwa kwe-dacromet ebusweni. Ngenxa yokuvinjelwa kokuqukethwe kwe-chromium ene-hexavalent endaweni engaphezulu yezinsimbi zezimoto, ayihlangabezani nezindinganiso zeziqondiso zokuvikela imvelo, futhi imikhiqizo equkethe izinto eziyingozi ayivunyelwe ukungena emakethe, okubeka phezulu ngendlela engakaze ibonwe enguqulweni entsha. ikhono le-fastener yezimoto ukwelashwa surface Izidingo ezijwayelekile zemvelo.

1. I-Geomet ye-zinc-aluminium esekelwe emanzini

I-Geomet, i-Enoufu Group ithuthukise ubuchwepheshe obuphelele obususelwe eminyakeni engaphezu kwengu-30 yokuhlangenwe nakho kobuchwepheshe bokumelana nokugqwala kwe-DACROMET kanye nangemva kweminyaka yocwaningo nentuthuko. Ubuchwepheshe obusha bokwelashwa kwe-chromium surface --- GEOMET.

Indlela yokulwa nokugqwala, ukwakheka kwefilimu ephathwa yiGummet nayo iyafana nefilimu ephathwa yiDacromet. Amashidi ensimbi agqitshwe ngezingqimba ukuze enze ifilimu ehlanganiswe ne-silicon-based adhesive ukumboza i-substrate.

Izinzuzo ze-Geomet: I-Conductivity, ishidi lensimbi elinamandla aphezulu lenza amabhawodi e-Geomet ahambise. Ukuvumelana nezimo ngopende, i-Geomet ingasetshenziswa njengesiqalo samapende amaningi afaka i-electroplating. Ukuvikelwa kwemvelo, isixazululo esisekelwe emanzini, asiqukethe i-chromium, futhi awekho amanzi angcolile akhiqizwayo, futhi azikho izinto eziyingozi ezikhishelwa emoyeni. Ukumelana nokugqwala okuhle kakhulu, ukujiya kwefilimu okungu-6-8μm kuphela, kungafinyelela ukuhlolwa kwesifutho sikasawoti ngaphezu kuka-1000h. Ukumelana nokushisa, ifilimu ye-inorganic, nefilimu ayinawo umswakama. Inqubo ye-embrittlement engenayo i-hydrogen, inqubo yokuhlanganisa engenayo i-asidi kanye ne-electrolytic, gwema ukugqilazwa kwe-hydrogen njengenqubo evamile yokufakwa kwe-electroplating.

Ukuzinza kwe-coefficient ye-friction kubaluleke kakhulu ekuhlanganiseni izinsimbi zezimoto. I-coefficient yamanzi esekelwe emanzini e-zinc-aluminium iyisisombululo se-coefficient of friction. Ngokwesisekelo sokumbozwa kwe-zinc-aluminium, kusetshenziswa i-inorganic surface esekelwe emanzini enomsebenzi wokugcoba ---PLUS.

2. Ubuchwepheshe be-Electrophoretic coating

Eminyakeni yamuva nje, ezinye izibophelelo zezinkampani ezithile zezimoto ziye zasebenzisa i-electrophoretic coating esikhundleni se-passivation ngemva kwe-electroplating. Ngamagama alula, umgomo we-electrophoretic coating "ubulili obuhlukile buheha omunye nomunye", okufana nozibuthe. I-anode electrophoresis iboshwe ngamabholithi ku-anode futhi upende ukhokhiswa kabi; kuyilapho i-cathodic electrophoresis iboshwe ngamabholithi ku-cathode, upende ukhokhiswa kahle. Njengoba sonke sazi, i-electrophoretic coating isetshenziswa kakhulu ngomshini, ihambisana nemvelo, futhi ifilimu kapende inokumelana nokugqwala okuhle kakhulu. Gcoba kabusha futhi usebenzise kabusha imithombo yamanzi ukuze kuncishiswe ukungcola; ukuqinisa ukubuyiswa kwezinsimbi ezinzima ukunciphisa ukukhishwa kwegesi; ukunciphisa ukukhishwa kwe-VOC (i-volatile organic compounds); ukunciphisa ukusetshenziswa kwamandla (amanzi, ugesi, uphethiloli, njll.), futhi kuhlangatshezwane nezidingo zokuvikela imvelo ukuze kwehliswe izindleko futhi kuthuthukiswe ikhwalithi.

Isetshenziswe ezingxenyeni zezimoto nezixhumi iminyaka eminingana. Inqubo yokumboza i-electrophoretic isivuthiwe. Kungumkhiqizo othatha indawo ye-electroplating. I-PPGEKhetha i-ropolyseal fastener okukhethekile kwe-electrophoretic coating material, EPll/SST 120～200h anode electrophoresis, EPlll/SST 200～300h cathodic electrophoresis, EPlV/SST 500～1000h cathodic1000 electrophoresisST, 1500EP cathodicXNUMX electrophoresisSTXNUMX electrophoresis; kanye ne-ZiNC Rich coating ye-organic coating (conductive).

Ngokuthuthuka kobuchwepheshe, ngaphezu kwe-cathodic electrophoretic coating enokumelana nokugqwala okuhle kakhulu, i-anodic electrophoretic coating enokumelana okuthile nesimo sezulu kanye ne-cathodic electrophoretic coating with edge corrosion resistance nayo isetshenziswe ngokungokoqobo emgqeni wokukhiqiza. Njengamanje, uchungechunge lwe-PPG lwe-electrophoretic coating luvunyelwe izinkampani eziningi zokukhiqiza izimoto, futhi uchungechunge lwezicaciso lushintshiwe lwaba yizinga elihlanganisiwe, i-S424 ishintshelwe ku-S451, njenge-Ford WSS-M21P41-A2, S451; General Motors GM6047 ikhodi G; I-Chrysler PS-7902 Mcthod C.

Izinzuzo ze-electrophoretic coating zihambisana nokuvikelwa kwemvelo. I-Electrophoretic coating isebenzisa upende osuselwe emanzini, futhi i-passivation isebenzisa i-chromium e-trivalent; ngcono ukumelana nokugqwala komkhiqizo, ukunamathela okuhle kakhulu; ayikho imbobo yepulaki, akukho ntambo yesikulufu, ukujiya kwefilimu efanayo, inani letorque elingaguquki; electroplating yendabuko + passivation Inqubo, ukuhlolwa isifutho sikasawoti kufinyelela mayelana 144h. Ngemuva kokwamukela i-zinc phosphating + i-primer ecebile ye-zinc + ye-cathodic electrophoretic coating process, ukuhlolwa kwesifutho sikasawoti kungafinyelela ngaphezu kwe-1000h, uma inqubo ye-electroplating + cathodic electrophoretic coating yamukelwa, ukuhlolwa kwesifutho sikasawoti kungafinyelela ngaphezu kuka-500h.

4, isiphetho

Ngokuzayo, ukuthuthukiswa kwezibophelelo zezimoto kuzoba okomuntu siqu, izinqubo zokwelashwa kokushisa zizogqama kakhulu ezicini zesevisi, futhi ubuchwepheshe obuhlakaniphile, obuluhlaza, nobungasindi bonke buzodlala indima ebalulekile. Ukuthuthukiswa kobuchwepheshe kanye nemishini kuyisisekelo sokuthuthukiswa kokukhiqiza okuthuthukile, futhi kusenendawo enkulu yentuthuko. Ukunciphisa igebe ngezinga elithuthukisiwe lamazwe angaphandle, umsebenzi usenzima kakhulu, futhi umsebenzi unzima futhi mude.

Xhumanisa nale ndatshana: Ukuhlaziywa kwethrendi entsha yokuthuthukiswa kobuchwepheshe bokwelapha ukushisa kwezinsimbi zezimoto

Phinda Uphrinte Isitatimende: Uma ingekho imiyalelo ekhethekile, zonke izindatshana ezikule sayithi zingezangempela. Sicela ukhombise umthombo wokuphrinta kabusha:https://www.cncmachiningptj.com

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